Table 3 Different application strategies and related mechanisms of GV

Ultrasound imaging

Contrast agent

Gas vesicles filled with gas can enhance the contrast of ultrasound signals between tissues

[59]

Reporter gene expression product

The ARG was transferred into the cells to generate gas vesicles in the cells, which enabled cell visualization

[9]

Ultrasonic biosensor

Engineering GvpC to detect enzyme activity

[60]

Hyperpolarized xenon MRI

Contrast agent

Hyperpolarized 129Xe can exchange with the interior of the GV

[61]

Optical coherence tomography (OCT)

Contrast agent

The air in the GV results in a strong scattering of incident light, improving the contrast of OCT signals

[58]

Material delivery

Delivery vehicles

Modify GvpA or GvpC to bind target proteins or genes

[62]

Vaccine

Antigen presentation

Engineering modification GV presenting antigens to stimulate an immune response

[63]

Others

Coagulant

GV collapse destroys cells and leads to the accumulation of proteins in extracellular organisms that promote clotting

[19]

Open the vascular barrier

Ultrasound mediates GV to produce a cavitation effect to open blood vessels

[64]